Page 22 - Teaching English at Primary Level: From Theory into the Classroom

Key Principles

which it is used, our general knowledge of the world, and other ex-
tralinguistic cues provided. In addition, the input hypothesis claims
that speaking fluency develops over time as more input is provided.
One idea related to this claim is that children learning an FL naturally
go through a ‘silent period’ during which they build up competence in
the FL through listening, while the speaking ability emerges on its own
after enough competence has been developed by listening and under-
standing. This has important pedagogical considerations especially for
YLs who may take several months before they start uttering their first
words in an FL (Krashen, 1982).
5. The affective filter hypothesis. High motivation and self-confidence on
the one hand and low levels of anxiety on the other result in learners
having low filters which allow them to acquire a language without too
many obstacles. In contrast, low motivation and a high anxiety level are
seen as barriers for acquiring a language even with appropriate input.

Each of the hypotheses above has important implications for teaching
practice. Table 1.3 gives an overview of the five hypotheses with guidelines
and recommendations for effective classroom use.
Krashen’s theory has been disputed and challenged by several researchers
(Ellis, 1994;Hadley&Reiken,1993;Lightbown &Spada,2013) fordifferentrea-
sons. One of the most common criticisms is that the distinction between
‘learning’ and ‘acquisition’ is not clearly defined and the claims related to this
hypothesis are largely untestable. Next, the nature of comprehensible input
is questionable and again difficult to test. In addition, by focusing too much
attention on comprehensible input, it disregards interaction and language
output.
The affective filter hypothesis has been contested for not taking into ac-
count individual differences. Despite these criticisms, however, the theory
has had a strong influence on second language teaching in the past forty
years and the hypotheses in Table 1.3 are still largely relevant today (Loewen,
2021). Both researchers and practitioners seem to find Krashen’s claims on the
distinction between learning and acquisition, on the importance of compre-
hensible input and others useful on an intuitive level.

Reflection Point
1. In what way are Krashen’s hypotheses useful in teaching YLLs?
2. How much do you personally use the ‘monitor system’?
3. Discuss different ways of creating a mistake-friendly environment.

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