Page 28 - Teaching English at Primary Level: From Theory into the Classroom

Key Principles

on the ways human thinking is dominated by mental processes emerging
from language (Brewster et al., 2002).
A particularly valuable concept which derives from the work of Vygotsky
and Bruner is the idea of scaffolding. It has its roots in the conceptual frame-
work referred to as the ‘zone of proximal development’ (ZPD), a metaphor
proposed by Vygotsky (1978, p. 86) to illustrate the distance ‘between the
actual developmental level as determined by independent problem-solving
and the level of potential development as determined through problem-
solving under guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers.’ A good
example of scaffolding are training wheels on a bicycle. They provide chil-
dren with the support they need to acquire the complex task of pedalling,
balancing and steering simultaneously until they can do it on their own. In
a classroom context, this may be seen as the gap between what learners
can achieve independently and what they can do with the help from a more
knowledgeable individual (teacher or peer). According to Vygotsky (1978),
children develop cognition and language as a result of social interaction with
other people, but they gradually move away from relying on others and be-
come more independent in their actions and thinking. This is achieved with
the ‘internalisation’ process which does not just transfer or copy the external
social interaction to the child but transforms it into a new form of interac-
tion which guides the child’s actions (Cameron, 2001). Read (2004) empha-
sises that the ZPD provides a useful conceptual framework for FLT purposes
which can help the teachers calibrate the level of challenge and complexity
in activities and tasks.
Various scaffolding strategies can be efficiently applied in teaching YLs,
for example using visuals and realia, gestures, stories, various classroom rou-
tines, music and movement etc. While the choice of scaffold depends on the
context of learning and the learners’ needs, it is also useful to distinguish
between different types of scaffolding. Echevarria et al. (2004) categorise
scaffolding techniques into three types: verbal, procedural, and instructional.
Verbal scaffolding refers to techniques which are focused on language devel-
opment, such as paraphrasing or asking questions. Instructional scaffolding
techniques include a variety of instructional tools that support learning, such
asdifferentkindsofvisualsandgraphicorganizers,whileproceduralscaffold-
ing techniques relate to different kinds of grouping and activity structures.
Scaffolding may also involve teachers helping learners to attend to what is
relevant by providing focusing activities. Cameron (2001) suggests that lan-
guage teaching can benefit from Bruner’s concept of ‘formats and routines’
which refers to particular events which ‘combine the security of the famil-

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